Since the 1990s, the U.S.-led Liberal International Order (LIO) has dominated global governance by combining material and symbolic power. Within this system, peripheral and semi-peripheral states are expected to advance toward the liberal core by internalizing its norms, institutions, and ideology. Yet despite China’s deep integration into global capitalism, liberal democracy has steadily lost appeal among Chinese intellectuals. This study explores why this ideological shift occurred over the past 35 years.
Building on existing literature, I propose two key mechanisms behind this shift: stigmatization and legitimation. International stigmatisation, particularly from liberal actors, often resonates with domestic narratives, reinforcing ideological divergence. Simultaneously, the Chinese party-state co-opts and synthesises elements from various intellectual currents to reinforce its own legitimacy.
The analysis draws on Chinese debates over political reform, discourse on the “China Model” and a Chinese-led world order, and critiques of Western—especially American—democracy. Through these materials, the study contributes to debates on the LIO’s crisis and the limits of liberal socialisation. It also provides a novel perspective on contemporary trends in Chinese intellectual thought and its interaction with the party-state’s legitimation discourse.
![Trends in Chinese Intellectual Thought on International Relations [PGR]](https://img.evbuc.com/https%3A%2F%2Fcdn.evbuc.com%2Fimages%2F1101408413%2F287584058748%2F1%2Foriginal.20250821-055914?w=940&auto=format%2Ccompress&q=75&sharp=10&rect=0%2C80%2C2560%2C1280&s=bc974b988b66d0267acd6e5231ec7ef1)